Parenago’s Discontinuity and the Onset of Stellar Molecular Spectral Lines

 

                                                          ABSTRACT

     Parenago’s Discontinuity, an observational effect, confirmed in main sequence stars out to ~260 light-years, describes faster galactic revolution velocities for stars cooler than (B-V)~0.5. Previous work by this author presents speculations regarding molecular consciousness in stars. Here, it is demonstrated, using observational data published in the 1930’s for a small star sample that the onset of molecular spectral lines in stellar reversing layers occurs almost precisely at the velocity discontinuity. The shape of the previously published galactic revolution velocity vs. (B-V) color index for several thousand stars is very similar to the curve of G spectral line width vs. (B-V) for the small stellar sample considered, which suggests a connection between molecules and Parenago’s Discontinuity.

                                                         Introduction

     Earlier work considered an evaluation of the scientific merit of philosopher Olaf Stapleton’s conjecture in the 1937 science-fiction novel Star Maker that a portion of stellar motion is volitional as opposed to purely gravitational [1]. It was postulated in that paper that a universal field of proto-consciousness interacts with molecular matter through the Casimir Effect. This effect describes the contribution of fluctuations in the universal vacuum in maintaining bonds between atoms in molecules.

    A search for supporting evidence revealed Parenago’s Discontinuity. Less massive, red, cooler stars tend to revolve around the galactic center a bit faster than more massive, bluer, hotter stars. A plot demonstrating this effect for several thousand main sequence stars out to ~260 light years is presented in Ref. 1 and reproduced here as Fig. 1. Data for this plot are from Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities and measurements from the ESA Hipparcos space observatory [2,3]. In this plot, stellar velocity components around the galactic center are plotted against (B-V) color indices. It was noted in Ref. 1 that Parenago’s Discontinuity occurs in the stellar temperature distribution where molecules first appear in stellar spectra.

    Other data from Hipparcos has been evaluated for the motions of giant stars out to >1,000 light years. Parenago’s Discontinuity is present in this sample as well, which may obviate many proposed local explanations [4-6]. Gaia, a successor to Hipparcos has been launched and positioned by ESA and is observing the positions and locations of ~ 1 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy. These observations will hopefully reveal whether Parenago’s Discontinuity is a galaxy-wide phenomenon.

    The purpose of this paper is to further investigate the on-set of molecular activity in stars. Questions addressed are the spectral class at which molecules are first noted in stellar spectra, which molecules have been observed in stellar and solar spectra and the stellar layer in which stable molecules are located. Using crude observations of molecular spectral line widths from a small sample of stars vs. spectral class, a plot has been prepared for comparison with the results in Fig. 1. 

                   Molecules in Stars: What are They and Where are they Located?

     The stellar interior is a very hot place. It therefore might come as a surprise to learn that the spectral signatures of numerous molecular species have been observed in various stars. Molecules detected in the spectra of the Sun (a G2 V star with an effective photosphere temperature of 5777 K [7]) and sunspots include AlH, AlO, BH, BO, CH, CH+, CN, CO, CuH, MgF, MgH, MgO, NH, O2, OH, ScO, SiH+, SiN, SiO, SrF, TiH [8]. Simple molecules including CH and CN are seen in other G and K stars. Cooler stars have more complex molecular signatures [8].

    As discussed by Tsuji, quantitative spectral analysis of molecular spectra is much easier in the bright, nearby Sun than in more distant stars. On problem in interpreting stellar molecular spectral data is line broadening. Another is the huge number of spectral lines for some molecules, which results in an overlap of spectral bands.  Stellar layers may be less homogenous than some researchers have assumed and starspots can affect the molecular spectra in adjacent, hotter regions [9].

    Although molecular spectra can serve as a diagnostic tool in the study of stellar outer layers and circumstellar envelopes, molecular stellar spectroscopy has played a minor role in astrophysics since the 1930’s [9]. 

    Because of the Sun’s high photosphere temperature and the fact that even a cooler K2 star has a photosphere temperature of about 5000 K, it seems likely that stable molecules are likely to be found in a low-optical-thickness reversing layer above the photosphere and below the chromosphere [10]. The mass of the molecular envelope in this layer is estimated to be between one-ten-thousandth and one-millionth of the Sun’s mass in some giant stars [9]. In the Quiet Sun, the temperature minimum in this layer is about 600 km above the photosphere [11]. Blitzed has estimated the CN excitation temperature in this layer to be 4490 +/- 100 K. Other researchers cite temperatures in the range 4000-4670 K [12].

    Some researchers have used stellar molecular spectral observations to model stellar interiors. Russell investigated the role of relative element abundances. For giant K and M stars with more oxygen than carbon, CN abundance and CH abundance respectively peak at temperatures of3877 K and 4200 K. For dwarf K and M stars with more oxygen than carbon, CN peaks at 4383 K and CH peaks at 4800 K [13].

    For giant stars richer in carbon than oxygen, such abundance peaks with temperature are not as distinct. In dwarf stars richer in richer in carbon than oxygen, CN abundance peaks near 3252 K and CH abundance peaks near 3150 K. For giants with equal amounts of carbon and oxygen, the temperatures for peak abundances of CH and CN are respectively 3877 K and 3055 K [13].

    Russell’s model also predicts that molecules are rare or non-existent in giants earlier than F4 and in dwarfs earlier than F7. In dwarfs, CH and CN maximum abundance occurs respectively in spectral classes K2 and K4. In giants, CH and CN maximum abundance occurs respectively in spectral classes G7 and K1. For temperatures greater than 4500 K, the predicted CN abundance is slightly less in giants than in dwarfs [13].

 

      Observations of Molecular Line Width vs. (B-V) Color Index for a Small Stellar Sample

     In 1937, Rense and Hynek published a study of the G Band in the spectra of 25 stars [14]. The G band extends 4203-4317 Angstroms, in the extreme blue region of the visible spectrum. This band can be used as an approximate measure of CH abundance sine some CH spectral absorption lines are within this band. They reported that the G band is somewhat more pronounced in giants than in dwarfs. Partial pressure is about 80X greater in F8 dwarfs than in G0 giants and association of atoms into molecules is 4.5X greater in f8 dwarf stars than in G0 giants. For dwarf stars hotter than F5 in their observational sample, all G band spectral lines are atomic [14]. In Ref. 14, CN spectral lines used were 4192.57 and 4197.10 Angstroms. CH spectral line used were 4293.12 and 4303.94 Angstroms.

    Table 1 is a partial representation ofthe Rense/Hynek results. Only single stars are included in Table 1, with the exception of η Cor., which is a binary consisting of two nearly identical G dwarf stars. Variable stars are also omitted. The BS# designations are from Hoffleit’s 1964 catalogue [15]. Spectral and luminosity classes and the (B-V) color indices are from Johnson et al’s 1966 photometric observations of many bright stars [16], except where otherwise noted. The (B-V) of the Sun is from Croft et al [17].

    A subset of the data presented in Table 1 was used to prepare the graphical representation of G line width vs. (B-V) color index for giant/bright giant stars (luminosity classesIII and II) and dwarf/sub-giants (luminosity classes V and IV) presented in Fig. 2.  Supergiants were not included because contemporary studies of Parenago’s Discontinuity in this stellar luminosity class have not been located by this author.

    At least one other team obtained similar but less quantitative observational results [18]. Investigating spectra of 28 stars for CH and 9 stars for CN., Swings and Struve found the hot-star limit for CH and CN is F8 stars, with photosphere temperatures of ~6500 K. In only one of eight F5 stars was a faint indication found for CN. CN becomes progressively stronger in stars cooler than the Sun [18].

                                                         Conclusions

      Based upon the small stellar sample used to prepare Fig. 2, it is evident that Parenago’s Discontinuity occurs almost exactly at the point in the stellar photosphere temperature distribution where the spectra of simple molecules appears in stellar spectra. It is also interesting to note that the increase in stellar galactic revolution velocities for (B-V) less than about 0.4 is very similar in shape to an increase in G line width at about the same value of (B-V) color index.

    The similarity of the two curves is certainly suggestive and supports the hypothesis discussed in Refs. 1, 5 and 6 that a portion of stellar motion is volitional and, to a certain extent, self-organization occurs at the stellar level. However, it must be remembered that the stellar spectra sample used to prepare Fig. 2 is very small and it is not yet known whether Parenago’s Discontinuity is a galactic phenomenon.

                                                    References

 

  1. G. L. Matloff, “Invited Commentary—Olaf Stapledon and Conscious Stars: Philosophy or Science”, JBIS, 65, 5-6 (2012).
  2. G. F. Gilmore and M. Zelik, “Star Populations and the Stellar Neighborhood”, in Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, 4th ed, A. N. Cox, Ed., Springer-Verlag, NY (2000), Chap. 19.
  3. J. J. Binney, W. Dehnen, N. Houk, C. A. Murray, and M. J. Preston, “Kinematics of MainSequence Stars from Hipparcos Data”, in Proc. ESA Symposium Hipparcos-Venice ’97, ESA-SP402, Venice, Italy, 13-16 May 1997, pp 473-477 (July, 1997).
  4. R. L. Branham Jr., The Kinematics and Velocity Ellipsoid of G III Stars”, Revisita Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrofisca, 47, 197-209 (2011).
  5. G. L. Matloff, “On the Nonlocality of Parenago’s Discontinuity and Universal Self-Organization”, Axiom, 1, No. 2, 14-19 (Dec., 2015). Also presented at 9th IAA Symposium on the Future of Space Exploration, Turin, Italy, 7-9 July 2015.
  6. G. L. Matloff, Starlight, Starbright—Are Stars Conscious?, Curtis, Norwich, UK (2015).
  7. W. C. Livingston, “The Sun”, in Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, 4th ed, A. N. Cox, Ed., Springer-Verlag, NY (2000), Chap. 14.
  8. R. W. Nicholls, “Transition Probability Data for Molecules of Astrophysical Interest”, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 15, 197-234 (1977).
  9. T. Tsuji, “Molecules in Stars”, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 197-234 (1986).
  10. E. Novotny, Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interiors, Oxford U. P. Press, NY (1973), pp. 192-193.
  11. E. H. Avrett, “The Solar Temperature Minimum and Chromosphere,” Current Theoretical Models and High Resolution Solar Observations, ASP Conference Series, Vol. 286, ed. A. A. Pevtsov and H. Uitenbroek, pp. 419-429.

12. L. Blitzer, “The Excitation Temperature of the Solar Reversing Layer from CN (λ 3883)”

      Astrophysical Journal, 91, 421- 427(1940).

13. Henry Norris Russell, “Molecules in the Sun and Stars”, Astrophysical Journal,  Vol. 79, 

      317- 342 (1934).

14. W. A. Rense and J. A. Hynek, “Photometry of the G Band in Representative Stellar Spectra”, 

      Astrophysical Journal,  86, 460-469(1937).

15. D. Hoffleit, Catalogue of Bright Stars, 3rd Revised Ed., Yale Univ. Observatory, New Haven,

      CT (1964).

16. H. L. Johnson, R. I. Mitchell, B. Iriate, and W. Z. Wisniewski, “UBVRIJKL Photometry of the

      Bright Stars”, Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Communication No.

      63, Vol. 4, Part 3, University of Arizona Press, Tucson AZ (1966). 

17. S. K. Croft, D. H. McNamara, K. A. Feltz Jr., “The (B-V) and (U-B) Color Indices of the

        Sun”,  Pub. Astro. Soc. Pacific, 84, 515-518 (1972).

18. P. Swings and O. Struve, “The Bands of CH and CN in Stellar Spectra”, Physical Review,

        39, pp. 142-150 (1932).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

      

                         

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                      

 

Fig. 1. Star Motion in Direction of Galactic Rotation (V) vs. (B-V) Color Index. Blue

                   Diamonds are from Gilmore and Zelik [2]. Red Squares are from Binney et al.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                             Fig. 2. G Line Width vs. (B-V) Color Index for Rense/Hynek Stars.

                    Green Points: giants & bright giants. Blue points: dwarfs & sub-giants

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

      

 

TABLE 1. CN Molecular and G Equivalent Absorption Observational Estimates from Rense and Hynek (1937). G Line Absorption is a Measure of CH Abundance. Unless Noted, Spectral/Luminosity Class and B-V are from Johnson et al, 1966, Unless Otherwise Noted.

 

Star Name     BS#     Spectral/Luminosity Class  (B-V)   G Line Width   CN Relative Absorption

 

  η  Lep.          2085            F0 V                           0.33          4.5              0

20 Can. Ven.  5017            F0 II-III                       0.30             4.9              0

81 Leo.           4408            F2 V+                         0.37+            3.6            >0  

53 Vir.             4981            F5 III-IV++                  0.47++          4.5                >0 

  τ Boo.           5185            F2 V                        0.48             4.6               >0

  α Per.           1017               F5 I                           0.48             6.0               >0

  η Cas.            219               G0 V                         0.58           10.9                 0

     Sun+++                              G0 V                         0.63             9.4                 1

  η Cor.          5727/5728  G2V (G1V + G3V)       0.58             7.5                 2

  β Lep.           1829               G5 III                      0.82           11.5                 2

 σ 2 Eri.           1325               K1 V                         0.82             9.6                 1

  ε Gem.          2473            G8 I                        1.40           13.2                 3

  ε Eri.               984               K2 V                         0.88           12.3               >1  

  τ Ceti            509               G8 V                         0.72           12.8                 1

  α Boo.           5340               K2 III                      1.23          14.5              3

   ι  Aur.           1577              K3 II                      1.53          14.0               >2

   α Ori.            2061               M1/2 I                    1.84          10.7              3

___________________________________________________________________________

BS# are Bright Star Numbers from: D. Hoffleit, Catalogue of Bright Stars, 3rd Revised Ed., 

      Yale Univ. Observatory, New Haven, CT (1964).

Variable and multiple stars from Rense/Hynek list are omitted except forη Cor., which is a

      double with nearly identical members.  

  + : www.inis.jinr.ru/sl/tcaep/astro/constell/11250099.htm. Also in Wikipedia.

++ : www.inis.jinr.ru/sl/tcaep/astro/constell/13120006.htm. Also in Wikipedia.

+++ :  Ref. 17

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    

 

 

 

 

Parenago’s Discontinuity and the Onset of Stellar Molecular Spectral Lines

 

                                                          ABSTRACT

Parenago’s Discontinuity, an observational effect, confirmed in main sequence stars out to ~260 light-years, describes faster galactic revolution velocities for stars cooler than (B-V)~0.5. Previous work by this author presents speculations regarding molecular consciousness in stars. Here, it is demonstrated, using observational data published in the 1930’s for a small star sample that the onset of molecular spectral lines in stellar reversing layers occurs almost precisely at the velocity discontinuity. The shape of the previously published galactic revolution velocity vs. (B-V) color index for several thousand stars is very similar to the curve of G spectral line width vs. (B-V) for the small stellar sample considered, which suggests a connection between molecules and Parenago’s Discontinuity.

                                                       Introduction

 

Earlier work considered an evaluation of the scientific merit of philosopher Olaf Stapleton’s conjecture in the 1937 science-fiction novel Star Maker that a portion of stellar motion is volitional as opposed to purely gravitational [1]. It was postulated in that paper that a universal field of proto-consciousness interacts with molecular matter through the Casimir Effect. This effect describes the contribution of fluctuations in the universal vacuum in maintaining bonds between atoms in molecules.

    A search for supporting evidence revealed Parenago’s Discontinuity. Less massive, red, cooler stars tend to revolve around the galactic center a bit faster than more massive, bluer, hotter stars. A plot demonstrating this effect for several thousand main sequence stars out to ~260 light years is presented in Ref. 1 and reproduced here as Fig. 1. Data for this plot are from Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities and measurements from the ESA Hipparcos space observatory [2,3]. In this plot, stellar velocity components around the galactic center are plotted against (B-V) color indices. It was noted in Ref. 1 that Parenago’s Discontinuity occurs in the stellar temperature distribution where molecules first appear in stellar spectra.

    Other data from Hipparcos has been evaluated for the motions of giant stars out to >1,000 light years. Parenago’s Discontinuity is present in this sample as well, which may obviate many proposed local explanations [4-6]. Gaia, a successor to Hipparcos has been launched and positioned by ESA and is observing the positions and locations of ~ 1 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy. These observations will hopefully reveal whether Parenago’s Discontinuity is a galaxy-wide phenomenon.

    The purpose of this paper is to further investigate the on-set of molecular activity in stars. Questions addressed are the spectral class at which molecules are first noted in stellar spectra, which molecules have been observed in stellar and solar spectra and the stellar layer in which stable molecules are located. Using crude observations of molecular spectral line widths from a small sample of stars vs. spectral class, a plot has been prepared for comparison with the results in Fig. 1. 

                       Molecules in Stars: What are They and Where are they Located?

     The stellar interior is a very hot place. It therefore might come as a surprise to learn that the spectral signatures of numerous molecular species have been observed in various stars. Molecules detected in the spectra of the Sun (a G2 V star with an effective photosphere temperature of 5777 K [7]) and sunspots include AlH, AlO, BH, BO, CH, CH+, CN, CO, CuH, MgF, MgH, MgO, NH, O2, OH, ScO, SiH+, SiN, SiO, SrF, TiH [8]. Simple molecules including CH and CN are seen in other G and K stars. Cooler stars have more complex molecular signatures [8].

    As discussed by Tsuji, quantitative spectral analysis of molecular spectra is much easier in the bright, nearby Sun than in more distant stars. On problem in interpreting stellar molecular spectral data is line broadening. Another is the huge number of spectral lines for some molecules, which results in an overlap of spectral bands.  Stellar layers may be less homogenous than some researchers have assumed and starspots can affect the molecular spectra in adjacent, hotter regions [9].

    Although molecular spectra can serve as a diagnostic tool in the study of stellar outer layers and circumstellar envelopes, molecular stellar spectroscopy has played a minor role in astrophysics since the 1930’s [9]. 

    Because of the Sun’s high photosphere temperature and the fact that even a cooler K2 star has a photosphere temperature of about 5000 K, it seems likely that stable molecules are likely to be found in a low-optical-thickness reversing layer above the photosphere and below the chromosphere [10]. The mass of the molecular envelope in this layer is estimated to be between one-ten-thousandth and one-millionth of the Sun’s mass in some giant stars [9]. In the Quiet Sun, the temperature minimum in this layer is about 600 km above the photosphere [11]. Blitzed has estimated the CN excitation temperature in this layer to be 4490 +/- 100 K. Other researchers cite temperatures in the range 4000-4670 K [12].

    Some researchers have used stellar molecular spectral observations to model stellar interiors. Russell investigated the role of relative element abundances. For giant K and M stars with more oxygen than carbon, CN abundance and CH abundance respectively peak at temperatures of3877 K and 4200 K. For dwarf K and M stars with more oxygen than carbon, CN peaks at 4383 K and CH peaks at 4800 K [13].

    For giant stars richer in carbon than oxygen, such abundance peaks with temperature are not as distinct. In dwarf stars richer in richer in carbon than oxygen, CN abundance peaks near 3252 K and CH abundance peaks near 3150 K. For giants with equal amounts of carbon and oxygen, the temperatures for peak abundances of CH and CN are respectively 3877 K and 3055 K [13].

    Russell’s model also predicts that molecules are rare or non-existent in giants earlier than F4 and in dwarfs earlier than F7. In dwarfs, CH and CN maximum abundance occurs respectively in spectral classes K2 and K4. In giants, CH and CN maximum abundance occurs respectively in spectral classes G7 and K1. For temperatures greater than 4500 K, the predicted CN abundance is slightly less in giants than in dwarfs [13].

      Observations of Molecular Line Width vs. (B-V) Color Index for a Small Stellar Sample

     In 1937, Rense and Hynek published a study of the G Band in the spectra of 25 stars [14]. The G band extends 4203-4317 Angstroms, in the extreme blue region of the visible spectrum. This band can be used as an approximate measure of CH abundance sine some CH spectral absorption lines are within this band. They reported that the G band is somewhat more pronounced in giants than in dwarfs. Partial pressure is about 80X greater in F8 dwarfs than in G0 giants and association of atoms into molecules is 4.5X greater in f8 dwarf stars than in G0 giants. For dwarf stars hotter than F5 in their observational sample, all G band spectral lines are atomic [14]. In Ref. 14, CN spectral lines used were 4192.57 and 4197.10 Angstroms. CH spectral line used were 4293.12 and 4303.94 Angstroms.

    Table 1 is a partial representation ofthe Rense/Hynek results. Only single stars are included in Table 1, with the exception of η Cor., which is a binary consisting of two nearly identical G dwarf stars. Variable stars are also omitted. The BS# designations are from Hoffleit’s 1964 catalogue [15]. Spectral and luminosity classes and the (B-V) color indices are from Johnson et al’s 1966 photometric observations of many bright stars [16], except where otherwise noted. The (B-V) of the Sun is from Croft et al [17].

    A subset of the data presented in Table 1 was used to prepare the graphical representation of G line width vs. (B-V) color index for giant/bright giant stars (luminosity classesIII and II) and dwarf/sub-giants (luminosity classes V and IV) presented in Fig. 2.  Supergiants were not included because contemporary studies of Parenago’s Discontinuity in this stellar luminosity class have not been located by this author.

    At least one other team obtained similar but less quantitative observational results [18]. Investigating spectra of 28 stars for CH and 9 stars for CN., Swings and Struve found the hot-star limit for CH and CN is F8 stars, with photosphere temperatures of ~6500 K. In only one of eight F5 stars was a faint indication found for CN. CN becomes progressively stronger in stars cooler than the Sun [18].

                                                    Conclusions

     Based upon the small stellar sample used to prepare Fig. 2, it is evident that Parenago’s Discontinuity occurs almost exactly at the point in the stellar photosphere temperature distribution where the spectra of simple molecules appears in stellar spectra. It is also interesting to note that the increase in stellar galactic revolution velocities for (B-V) less than about 0.4 is very similar in shape to an increase in G line width at about the same value of (B-V) color index.

    The similarity of the two curves is certainly suggestive and supports the hypothesis discussed in Refs. 1, 5 and 6 that a portion of stellar motion is volitional and, to a certain extent, self-organization occurs at the stellar level. However, it must be remembered that the stellar spectra sample used to prepare Fig. 2 is very small and it is not yet known whether Parenago’s Discontinuity is a galactic phenomenon.

                                                       References

 

  1. G. L. Matloff, “Invited Commentary—Olaf Stapledon and Conscious Stars: Philosophy or Science”, JBIS, 65, 5-6 (2012).
  2. G. F. Gilmore and M. Zelik, “Star Populations and the Stellar Neighborhood”, in Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, 4th ed, A. N. Cox, Ed., Springer-Verlag, NY (2000), Chap. 19.
  3. J. J. Binney, W. Dehnen, N. Houk, C. A. Murray, and M. J. Preston, “Kinematics of MainSequence Stars from Hipparcos Data”, in Proc. ESA Symposium Hipparcos-Venice ’97, ESA-SP402, Venice, Italy, 13-16 May 1997, pp 473-477 (July, 1997).
  4. R. L. Branham Jr., The Kinematics and Velocity Ellipsoid of G III Stars”, Revisita Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrofisca, 47, 197-209 (2011).
  5. G. L. Matloff, “On the Nonlocality of Parenago’s Discontinuity and Universal Self-Organization”, Axiom, 1, No. 2, 14-19 (Dec., 2015). Also presented at 9th IAA Symposium on the Future of Space Exploration, Turin, Italy, 7-9 July 2015.
  6. G. L. Matloff, Starlight, Starbright—Are Stars Conscious?, Curtis, Norwich, UK (2015).
  7. W. C. Livingston, “The Sun”, in Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities, 4th ed, A. N. Cox, Ed., Springer-Verlag, NY (2000), Chap. 14.
  8. R. W. Nicholls, “Transition Probability Data for Molecules of Astrophysical Interest”, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 15, 197-234 (1977).
  9. T. Tsuji, “Molecules in Stars”, Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 24, 197-234 (1986).
  10. E. Novotny, Introduction to Stellar Atmospheres and Interiors, Oxford U. P. Press, NY (1973), pp. 192-193.
  11. E. H. Avrett, “The Solar Temperature Minimum and Chromosphere,” Current Theoretical Models and High Resolution Solar Observations, ASP Conference Series, Vol. 286, ed. A. A. Pevtsov and H. Uitenbroek, pp. 419-429.

12. L. Blitzer, “The Excitation Temperature of the Solar Reversing Layer from CN (λ 3883)”

      Astrophysical Journal, 91, 421- 427(1940).

13. Henry Norris Russell, “Molecules in the Sun and Stars”, Astrophysical Journal,  Vol. 79, 

      317- 342 (1934).

14. W. A. Rense and J. A. Hynek, “Photometry of the G Band in Representative Stellar Spectra”, 

      Astrophysical Journal,  86, 460-469(1937).

15. D. Hoffleit, Catalogue of Bright Stars, 3rd Revised Ed., Yale Univ. Observatory, New Haven,

      CT (1964).

16. H. L. Johnson, R. I. Mitchell, B. Iriate, and W. Z. Wisniewski, “UBVRIJKL Photometry of the

      Bright Stars”, Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, Communication No.

      63, Vol. 4, Part 3, University of Arizona Press, Tucson AZ (1966). 

17. S. K. Croft, D. H. McNamara, K. A. Feltz Jr., “The (B-V) and (U-B) Color Indices of the

        Sun”,  Pub. Astro. Soc. Pacific, 84, 515-518 (1972).

18. P. Swings and O. Struve, “The Bands of CH and CN in Stellar Spectra”, Physical Review,

        39, pp. 142-150 (1932).

 

Parenago’s Discontinuity: Correlation with Appearance of Molecular Signatures in the Spectra of Main Sequence Stars

 

               INTRODUCTION: A STELLAR MOTION ANOMALY

 

    In previous blog entries and publications [1-3], we have investigated the possibility that Parenago’s Discontinuity provides evidence for universal self organization or volitional stars. Discovered by Pavel Parenago, this anomaly presents evidence for faster motions of cooler, less massive, redder stars around the galactic center than corresponding motions of hotter, more massive, bluer stars. This stellar velocity discontinuity in main sequence stars out to about 260 light years from the Sun seems to be congruent with the appearance of molecular signatures in the spectra of these stars. This is effect supports the hypothesis that a version ofpanpsychism is correct—a field of proto-consciousness permeates the universe. This field interacts with molecular matter through the pressure of vacuum fluctuations, often referred to as the Casimir Effect.

    Although competing explanations for Parenago’s Discontinuity do not seem adequate, many questions remain. Among them is the venue of the effect—is it local or galactic? References 2 and 3 present evidence that it is observed in giant stars out to distances greater than 1,000 light years, which renders local explanations less viable. Europe’s GAIA space observatory is now operational. Its observations of the motions and velocities of ~1 billion stars in the Milky Way galaxy during the next few years will hopefully demonstrate whether Parenago’s Discontinuity affects stars in all regions of our galaxy.

    The analysis considered here refers to original research on stellar spectra to investigate how close the velocity discontinuity corresponds to the onset of molecular spectral signatures. As will be demonstrated, the agreement is quite good.

 

        CONSIDERATION OF A CLASSIC RESEARCH PAPER

 

    In 1932, Otto Struve and P. Swings collaborated on an observationalstudy of the stellar spectral bands produced by CH and CN molecules in stellar photospheres [4]. The authors of this reverence report that, based upon their observations, molecular spectral lines are present in stars of F8 spectral class and later on the Uhertzprung-Russell Diagram.

    Among their observational stars are six that were classified at the time as F8 stars. As presented in Table 1, three of these stars are currently considered to be F8 supergiants (F8 I). The others have been reclassified.

    If the reader refers to Fig. 1 of Ref. 1 or Fig. 13.3 of Ref. 2, he/she will discover that Parenago’s Discontinuity is presented as a plot of the average star velocity component around the galactic center (relative to the Local Standard of Rest) versus the (B-V) color index. The apparent magnitudes of the star in the blue range of the visual spectrum and near the green-yellow center of the visual spectrum are respectively the B and V magnitudes. The apparent magnitude system is a logarithmic comparison of light intensity received from stars. The lower the apparent magnitude, the brighter the star. A low (B-V) color index indicates a hot, blue, comparatively massive star. A high (B-V) color index indicates that the surface temperature of the star is cooler, the star is redder and it isles massive. Reference to the figures mentioned above reveals that the velocity discontinuity is sharp and is centered near (B-V) ≈ 0.55. For comparison, the (B-V) color index of the Sun is about 0.63 [8,9].

    It is of interest to determine how close the discontinuity in Fig. 1 of Ref. 1 and Fig. 13.3 of Ref. 2 is to the (B-V) color index of an average F8 main sequence star (Luminosity Class V). As described in Refs. 1 and 2, the data presented is from Allens’s Astrophysical Handbook and observations of main sequence stars by the Hipparcos spacecraft out to about 260 light years [10,11].

    One approach to a further study of Parenago’s Discontinuity is the refer to tabulations of basic photometric observations of bright stars. One such tabulation is comprehensive listing of observations of more than 9,000 bright stars published by Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona (Tuscon) in 1966 [12]. The accuracy of (B-V) color index determinations in this source is listed as about 0.011 magnitudes in Table 8 of Ref. 12. 

    Table 2 presents (B-V) color indices for all F8 stars located in this source. The BS# (Bright Star Number) is from the Catalogue of Bright Stars [13]. Luminosity classes in Table 2 are for giant stars (III), subgiants (IV), main sequence stars (V) and for transitional stars between the main sequence and giant phases (IV—V).

    Note from the data presented in Table 2 that there are 8 main sequence stars, 4 subgiants, three transitional stars and only one giant in the sample. Because of the paucity of giants in this data set, not much can be done with correlating Parenago’s Discontinuity in giant stars (Fig. 23.1 of Ref. 2) with giant star spectral class. It is interesting however, that the (B-V) = 0.65 for this star correlates well with the discontinuity in this figure.

    For the other stars in the sample, there is not very difference among (B-V) color indices for main sequence, subgiant, and transitional stars. For main sequence stars in the sample, the average (B-V) color index is about 0.53.

 

                                                  CONCLUSIONS

 

    Figure 1, which is similar to Fig. 1 of Ref. 1 and Fig. 13.3 of Ref. 2, presents the relative star motion velocity (in km/s) around the galactic center vs. star (B-V) color index. Notice that (B-V) = 0.53, the value derived above for average F8 main sequence stars, correlates very well with the velocity discontinuity.

 

                                                    REFERENCES

 

  1. G. L. Matloff, “Invited Commentary—Olaf Stapledon and Conscious Stars: Philosophy or Science”, JBIS, 65, 5-6 (2012).
  2. G. L. Matloff, Starlight, Starbright: Are Stars Conscious?, Curtis Press, Norwich, UK (2015).
  3. G. L. Matloff, “The Nonlocality of Parenago’s Discontinuity and Universal Self-Organization,” IAA-FSE-15-06-03. Presented at 9th Symposium on the Future of Space Exploration, Turin, Italy, July 7-9, 2015. Published in Axiom (Journal of the Institute for Interstellar Studies,)  1,  14-19, 2015.
  4. P. Swings and O. Struve, “The Bands of CH and CN in Stellar Spectra”, Physical Review, 39, 142-150 (1932).
  5. R. Burnham, Jr., Burnham’s Celestial Handbook: An Observer;s Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System, Revised and Enlarged Edition, Dover, NY (1978).
  6. A. R. Upgren, “Parallax and Orbital Motion of the Triple System 26 Draconis from Photographs Taken with the Sproul 24-inch Refractor”, Astronomical Journal, 67, 539-543 (1962).
  7. G. M. Kennedy, M. C. Wyatt, B. Sibthorne, G. Duchene, P. Kalas, B. C. Matthews, J. S. Greaves, K. Y. L. Su, M. P. Fitzgerald, “99 Herculis: Host to a Circumbinary Polar-Ring Debris Disc”, Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society, 421, 2264-2276 (2012).
  8. S. K. Croft, D. H. McNamara, and K. A. Feltz, Jr., “The B-V) and (U-B) Color Indices of the Sun”, Pub. Astronomical Soc. Pacific, 84, 515- 518 (1972).
  9. R. J. Northcott ed., The Observer’s Handbook 1968, Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Toronto, Canada (1968).
  10. G. F. Gilmore and M. Zelik, “Star Populations and the Stellar Neighborhood”, in Allen’s Astrophysical Data, 4th ed., A. N. Cox (ed.), Springer-Verlag, NY (2000), Chap. 19.
  11. J. J. Binney, W. Dehnen, N. Houk, C. A. Murray, and M. J. Preston, “Kinematics of Main Sequence Stars from Hipparcos Data”, Proc. ESA Symposium Hipparcos-Venice ’97, ESA SP-402, Venice, Italy, 13-16 May 1997, pp. 473-477 (July, 1997).
  12. H. L. Johnson, R. I. Mitchell, B. Iriarte, and W. Z. Wisniewski, “UBVRI Photometry of the Bright Stars”, Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (Communication No. 63), Volume 4, Part 3, U. Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ (1966).
  13. D. Hoffleit, Catalogue of Bright Stars, Yale University, New Haven, CT (1964).

 

                                    TABLE 1. Swing & Struve (1932) F8 Stars

 

   

                     Star Name           Current Spectral and Luminosity Class     Reference Number 

                                      

                       γ Cyg                                  F8 I                                               [5]

                      α UMi                                  F8 I                                               [5]

                      δ CMag                                   F8 l                                               [5]

                     ε Hyr                                  G0 III                                             [5]

                   26 Dra                       Triple Star: G1V, M1V, M0V (in doubt)         [6]

                   99 Her                       Double Star: F7V, K4V, debris disk          [7]

 

 

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           TABLE 2. (B-V) Color Indices for F8 Spectral Class Stars (from Table 2 of Ref. 12)

 

 

                               BS#                     Luminosity Class           (B-V)

 

                              235                             V                          0.50

                              236                             V                          0.53

                              458                             V                          0.54

                              963                        IV                          0.51

                             1101                        V                          0.57

                             1674                        V                          0.52

                             3591                           III                          0.65

                             4112                        V                          0.52

                             4540                        V                          0.55

                             5304                           IV                          0.54

                             5694                         IV-V                        0.54

                             5986                         IV-V                        0.52

                             7172                      IV                          0.53

                             7955                         IV-V                        0.54

                             8170                           V                          0.53

                             8905                      IV                          0.61

 

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Edge Science In The Blog Era

I am a researcher on interstellar travel and related topics, a physics professor at New York City College of Technology and a sometimes NASA consultant; I’m probably the least likely person to enter the philosophical debate regarding consciousness as an epiphenomenon (a secondary effect perhaps arising from neuronal complexity) or a field that pervades the entire universe (panpsychism). Usually, it has seemed wise to keep my head down whenever this debate reared its head.

But certain issues were troubling me at the unconscious level. One of my mentors and co-authors, the late Evan Harris Walker, was a physicist who pioneered in the 1970’s early quantum consciousness theories. Although I couldn’t follow all the math, Harris’ concepts were fascinating. While consulting for a science-fiction novel in the early 1990’s, I investigated long-term survival of a near-Sun giant planet’s atmosphere, at the request of the novel’s co-author Buzz Aldrin. Calculations indicated that the hydrogen/helium atmosphere would survive for billions of years, which made Buzz very happy. Being too timid to submit these results for peer review, I missed out on predicting the existence of “Hot Jupiters” before their discovery. Finally, an undergraduate astronomy student questioned mainstream assumptions regarding the existence of dark matter and informed my class of his opinion that astrophysics is in a similar situation to classical physics in 1900—anomalies are building up and the paradigm must change.

It all came together in mid-2011, when I was invited to participate in a retrospective symposium to be held at the London headquarters of the British Interplanetary Society (BIS) on the achievements of the British philosopher/science- fiction-author Olaf Stapledon. I had discovered Stapledon’s 1937 masterwork Star Maker many years earlier, when I learned how often it was cited by astronomers, physicists and astronautical researchers including Freeman Dyson.

Since I’ve concentrated most of my creative effort on astro-engineering, space habitats and starships, I decided to leave these aspects of Star Maker to other speakers. Instead, I elected to check the scientific validity of the novel’s core metaphysics—that panpsychism is correct and a fraction of stellar motion is volitional.

First, since stellar interiors are devoid of neurons and tubules, I constructed a very simple model of molecular consciousness based in the work of Bernard Haisch and Sir Roger Penrose. I assumed the existence of a universal proto-consciousness field that interacts with molecules via vacuum fluctuation pressure—the Casimir Effect.

To test this against the real world, I initiated a Google search to see if there is any difference in the motion of cooler stars with molecules in their upper layers and motion of their hotter sisters. What I discovered blew my socks off—Parenago’s Discontinuity. The accompanying figure, from tabulated data in Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities 4th ed. and Binney et al’s reduction of observations from the ESA Hipparchus space observatory, plots stellar velocity around the galactic center vs. star (B-V) color index. Hot, blue, massive stars are to the left. Cool, red, less-massive stars are to the right. As I learned, the velocity discontinuity occurs at about the point where molecules begin to appear in stellar spectra. In general, cool stars with molecules (including our Sun) revolve ~20 km/s faster than their hot sisters. It was gratifying to see how nicely the two data sets coincide. I included these results in my Stapledon Symposium paper, which was published in the peer-reviewed Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (JBIS).

But there was more stellar kinematics to come. An astrophysicist working in Argentina, Richard Branham, has investigated giant star motions in the Hipparcos data set. As I describe in my recent book (Starlight, Starbright: Are Stars Conscious?, Curtis, UK, 2015), Branham’s results for a sample of thousands of giant stars out to a few thousand light years, shows that Parenago’s Discontinuity applies for these stars as well.

Astrophysicists work by proposing multiple possible explanations for observational anomalies and testing them. I am aware of two proposed rival explanations for Parenago’s Discontinuity.

One, that Binney et al. considered early on, assumes that low-mass stars might be affected more by close stellar encounters. This is probably not correct because, as most astronomers are aware, Population 1 stars are only sufficiently close when they reside in the birth nebulae. These nebulae last “only” 100 million years or so; velocities of low-mass stars being ejected from the birth nebulae should show greater dispersion, not systematic effects.

Another proposal that I discuss in the new book and elsewhere is Spiral Arms Density Waves. The density of the interstellar medium is not uniform. According to Density Waves, when a dense diffuse nebula moves through a star field, it might drag low mass stars along faster than high-mass stars. Unfortunately, an observational study of a few nearby spiral galaxies does not support Density Waves. Also, reduction of deep-sky-object tabulations by Messier, Herschel, and the NGC (New General Catalog) reveal few or no nebulae larger than a few hundred light years.

One can argue that the main sequence and giant star samples in the above studies are limited to a few thousand stars. GAIA, an ESA space observatory is currently on station conducting motion and distance studies of ~1 billion Milky Way stars. In a few years, we should know conclusively whether Parenago’s Discontinuity is a local or galactic phenomenon.

It was also necessary to investigate how a minded star might alter its galactic trajectory. The leading candidate is unidirectional matter jets, since we now know that some young stars eject these. A more controversial possibility is a very weak psychokinetic (PK) force. One place to review the controversy that still swirls around PK is a wonderful book by MIT physics professor David Kaiser, How the Hippies Saved Physics.

I’ve presented these concepts in several ways. As well as peer-reviewed papers in JBIS and Acta Astronautica and a presentation at a recent International Academy of Astronautics Symposium, I have collaborated with artist C Bangs (who is also my wife) on Starlight, Starbright: Are Stars Conscious?, an article in the Baen Press on-line science magazine, an Artist’s Book Star Bright? that has been collected by the Museum of Modern Art and two postings on science-journalist Paul Gilster’s Centauri-Dreams blog.

A well managed blog is apparently an excellent research tool. Instead of waiting months or years for the referees’s comments on a peer-reviewed submission, readers’ responses flood in almost immediately. Although some of the responses to my blog posting were jocular and others concentrated on the decades old PK controversy, many were from people well acquainted with astrophysical literature and technique.

Although it is much too early to speculate on the ultimate observational fate of this investigation into Stapleton’s volitional stars concept, one thing is clear. It is quite possible that panpsychism is emerging from philosophy and evolving into a sub-division of observational astrophysics. 

Are Stars Conscious? A SCIENCE-FICTION THEME by Greg Matloff

Matloff, “Are Stars Conscious?: A Science Fiction Theme”, Eyepiece Submission, dr.2, Oct. 2015

I am known as a researcher in interstellar travel and related topics. But because of a mentor—Evan Harris Walker—who helped pioneer quantum consciousness and an undergraduate astronomy student who questioned mainstream assumptions regarding dark matter and informed my class of his opinion that astrophysics is in a similar situation to classical physics in 1900. In 2011, I began a scientific study of the possibility that anomalous motions of some stars are partially due to stellar volition.

Published in a 2012 issue of JBIS (the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society), and subsequent work (some of which can be accessed on-line in the Centauri Dreams astronomy blog) my ideas were partially due to an influential science-fiction novel, Star Maker, authored by British philosopher Olaf Stapledon in 1937. A few years ago, after a joint presentation with artist C Bangs (who is my wife) at the London headquarters of the BIS, the publisher of a small British press, Neil Shuttlewood, suggested that I author a popular book on the subject with C’s work included as chapter frontispieces. The resulting recently published book, Starlight, Starbright: Are Stars Conscious? (Curtis, UK, 2015) contains a lot of the relevant physics and astronomy. Two chapters are devoted to science-fiction authors who have explored the concept of sentient stars.

First was Stapledon. Because of his technological and scientific predictions in Star Maker, that are widely cited by scientists and engineers, his core metaphysics that stars are in some sense conscious is hard to ignore. Stapledon feels that stellar motion, although primarily due to gravitational effects, is in part due to the stars’ desire to maintain their position in a stellar dance. To their dismay, organic planetary residents discover this when their stars explode after attempts are made by advanced technological civilizations to alter stellar motions.

Arthur C. Clarke, also famous for his work in space science and technology, was an early protege of Stapledon. In his 1953 story “Expedition to Earth,” a ship from a galactic empire touched down on ancient Earth. Bertrand, one of the alien explorers, tells his human counterpart that the Empire’s stars are exploding and hopes that Earth, in its distant technological future, can avoid the same fate.

In 1957, influential British astrophysicist, Sir Fred Hoyle authored The Black Cloud. A sentient molecular cloud takes up residence in our solar system, inadvertently damaging Earth’s climate. It is warned away by radio astronomers using 1950’s-vintage technology.

American authors have also delved into this concept. One is physicist Greg Benford, who co-authored with Gordon Eklund If the Stars are Gods in 1957. Here, the authors investigate the possibility that stars possess a god-like intelligence as opposed to a simple herding instinct.

In my recently published book, I discuss contributions by many other authors. But it is clear that science-fiction plays a major role in introducing new concepts to science.